Victorian Banksias Conservation 

Upcoming

Banksia canei -  film screenings

‘The Unextinction of Banksia canei’ tells the inspiring story of the restoration of this species to Burrowa Pine Mt NP where it became locally extinct after the 2020 bushfire. It is a joint project with ecologist Glen Johnson, Parks Victoria Ranger Kelton Goyne, Royal Botanic Gardens genetics researcher Laura Simmons, Our Native Garden Nursery and volunteers.

https://www.supergoatmedia.com.au/caneifilm

Past

Victorian Banksias workshop - 15th May 2020

An online workshop in 2020, organised by Arthur Rylah Institute (Dept Environment Land Water and Planning), Ecology Environment and Evolution (La Trobe University) and SWIFFT, brought together 30 people with expertise in Banksia research and management. Representatives from Victorian and interstate universities, Victorian government agencies, and volunteer land management groups shared their knowledge.  

The story that emerged from the workshop is that Victorian Banksia species are facing declines in numbers and/or health. Various interacting processes (fire, climate, fragmentation) are impacting different life stages of Banksia plants (seeds, seedlings, death). We identified and documented directions for research and management to tackle these problems.  

Adaptive management projects will be essential in moving forward – to monitor the responses of species and adjusting our actions accordingly. Collaboration between universities, government agencies and citizen scientists will be key to this. Two examples of successful research and management collaborations are: the restoration of Silver Banksia to connect isolated populations and provide reliable seed sources; and fire planning for Hairpin Banksia to ensure adequate fire intervals for seed set and seedling growth.  

To add your events, contact SWIFFT

Information source: VICFLORA (Flora of Victoria), Royal Botanic Gardens and (FFG Threatened List 2025)

Banksia canei

Mountain Banksia

Threat status Victoria: Critically endangered (FFG Threatened List 2025)

VicFlora

• Height to c. 3 m; lignotuber absent; follicles opening only after fire; flowers Nov–May.
• ‘Dry, rocky ridges, in open-forest or subalpine mallee scrubs’.

Photo 1. Banksia canei flower. (image: Casliber, via Wikimedia Creative Commons)

Photo 2. Banksia canei cone. (image: Lucas Bluff, DELWP)

Banksia canei distribution. Source: Victorian Biodiversity Atlas

Research & management B. canei

Banksia croajingolensis

Gippsland Banksia

Threat status Victoria: Critically endangered (FFG Threatened List 2025)

VicFlora

• Height to 1.2 m; lignotuber present; follicles opening when mature; flowers Jun–Aug.
• ‘Occurs in a drainage line in coastal heath’.

Banksia croajingolensis distribution . Source: Victorian Biodiversity Atlas

Research & management B. croajingolensis

Banksia cunninghamii 

(formerly B. spinulosa var. cunninghamii)

Hairpin Banksia

Threat status Victoria: Not listed (FFG Threatened List 2025)

VicFlora

• Height to 5 m; lignotuber absent; follicles opening with or without fire; flowers April to July.
• Foothill and lowland open-forests and heathy woodlands.

Photo 1 - Banksia  cunninghamii  (image: Annette Muir, DEECA)

Photo 2 - Banksia  cunninghamii flower (image: Annette Muir, DEECA)

Banksia cunninghamii distribution. Source: Victorian Biodiversity Atlas

Research & management B. cunninghamii 

Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifolia

Threat status Victoria: Not listed (FFG Threatened List 2025)

VicFlora

• Height to c. 25 m; lignotuber present; follicles opening on ripening; flowers Jan–Jun.
• ‘Near-coastal areas’.

Photo 1: Banksia integrifolia flower (image: Stefan Gouws, La Trobe University)

Photo 2: Banksia integrifolia cone (image: Casliber, via Wikimedia Creative Commons)

Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifolia distribution. Source: Victorian Biodiversity Atlas

Research & management B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia

Banksia marginata

Silver Banksia

Threat status Victoria: Not listed (FFG Threatened List 2025)

VicFlora

• Height 2 m to c. 12 m; lignotuber present or absent; follicles opening when mature; flowers Feb–Jul.
• ‘A very variable species in terms of habitat, habit, leaf shape and indumentum’.
• ‘Wide range of habitats’.

Photo 1 - Banksia marginata flower (image: Simon Heyes, La Trobe University)
Photo 2 - Banksia marginata cone (image: Simon Heyes, La Trobe University)
Photo 3 - Banksia marginata isolated tree (image: Bill Weatherly, Friends of the Forgotten Woodlands)

Banksia marginata distribution. Source: Victorian Biodiversity Atlas

Research & management B. marginata

Banksia ornata

Desert Banksia

Threat status Victoria: Not listed (FFG Threatened List 2025)

VicFlora

• Height to c. 3 m; lignotuber absent; follicles opening only after fire; flowers May–Sep.
•  ‘Usually grows in deep sand in heathland or mallee scrub’.

Photo 1: Banksia ornata flower (image: Neal Enright, Murdoch University)
Photo 2: Banksia ornata cones (image: Neal Enright, Murdoch University)

Banksia ornata distribution. Source: Victorian Biodiversity Atlas

Research & management B. ornata

Banksia saxicola

Rock Banksia

Threat status Victoria: Endangered (FFG Threatened List 2025)

VicFlora

• Height to c. 13 m; lignotuber absent; follicles opening on ripening or over years; flowers Jan–Mar.
• ‘Higher peaks and sheltered gullies and slopes, usually in rocky sites’.

Photo 1: Banksia saxicola cone (image: Kirrily Robert, via Wikimedia Creative Commons)

Banksia saxicola distribution. Source: Victorian Biodiversity Atlas

Banksia serrata

Saw Banksia

Threat status Victoria: Not listed (FFG Threatened List 2025)

VicFlora

• Height to c. 16 m; lignotuber present or absent; follicles opening only after fire; flowers Jan–Jun.
• ‘Confined to coastal and hinterland areas, often locally common on sandy soils in open-forests’.

Photo 1: Banksia serrata flower (image: Steve4343, via Wikimedia Creative Commons) 

Photo 2: Banksai serrata cone (image: Kirrily Robert, via Wikimedia Creative Commons)

Banksia serrata distribution. Source: Victorian Biodiversity Atlas

Research & management B. serrata

These are some of the Banksia research and management projects that are happening in Victoria. To add your projects, contact SWIFFT and provide the following details:

• Project name
• Contact name/s & organisation
• Email address, weblink
• Project type (research, management)
• Location/s
• Timing (years)
• 200 – 300 word summary (include threats, aims, activities, outcomes)

Banksia canei

Banksia canei bushfire recovery in north-east Victoria

• Glen Johnson (Wild Research); Laura Simmons (Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria); Kelton Goyne (Parks Victoria); Our Native Garden Nursery; Upper Murray Landcare Network.
• Project type: restoration
• Location: North-eastern Victoria
• Timing: 2017, 2020, 2024-2025
• Funding: gofundme - Support the unextinction of Banksia canei

Summary

Prior to the high severity 2020 bushfires, a small, isolated population of Banksia canei occurred in Burrowa Pine Mountain National Park (BPM NP.)  These stands were affected by drought, and inspections of some areas in 2017 revealed almost all B. canei plants were lacking mature seed-bearing cones. After the 2020 bushfires, with no living plants, standing seedbank or regeneration, the species became effectively extinct in BPM NP.

A recovery project is underway to reestablish a population of at least 500 adult B. canei plants in BPM NP. The work is a collaboration between researchers, land managers, and local volunteers.  To ensure genetic diversity and long-term resilience to climate change, seeds were collected from multiple populations in the Snowy Mountains, including Kosciuszko NP and the newly discovered Coral Bank population. Seeds were tested in the lab for viability rates and nursery germination trials were done. Propagation is being led by the volunteer-run Our Native Garden Nursery. In August 2025, over 800 B. canei seedlings are proposed to be planted in BPM NP by volunteers. Long-term monitoring will track survival rates and future seed production.  

The success of the restoration project is also dependent on understanding the species’ response to fire. Monitoring seedling emergence and time to reproductive maturity at other sites will help develop a demographic model for appropriate fire regimes to maintain populations.

Trailer Official: canei. The Unextinction of Banksia canei  - https://www.supergoatmedia.com.au/caneifilm

The Unextinction of Banksia canei Full length version 

Banksia canei genetics

Laura Simmons (Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria)

Project type: conservation genetics

Location: Victoria

Timing: 2020 – 2022, 2024

Funding: Victorian Government Bushfire Biodiversity Response and Recovery Program, Wettenhall Environmental Trust.

Summary

Much of the distribution of Banksia canei was affected by the 2019-2020 bushfires. It is a serotinous obligate seeder, and there was seedling recruitment in some areas, but the species became locally extinct in Burrowa Pine Mountain National Park (BPM).

The aim of the conservation genetics program at RBGV is to maximise the long-term resilience of threatened species, by informing genetic rescues and seed banking. The B. canei project investigated genetic diversity across its range, as well as where to source seed to restore the BPM population.

Leaf samples were taken from 15 locations across its range in subalpine Victoria and NSW, including herbarium specimens from BPM. DNA samples were sequenced using DArTseq by Diversity Arrays Technology with subsequent analysis undertaken at RBGV.

The results found that genetic diversity was low, and all populations showed levels of inbreeding This reflects the low gene flow between populations due to isolation of populations and limited pollen and seed dispersal.  Four genetic groupings were identified, tied to geographic areas: Southern Victorian Alps (Jamieson-Licola), Northern Victorian Alps (Omeo-Wulgulmerang), Snowy Mountains (Corryong-Yarangobilly), Kybeyan (Cooma-Wadbilliga).

Initially, the closest match to the BPM population was in the Snowy Mountains, but only one location remained after the bushfires, so the seed source was limited. A new population was discovered in the Kiewa Valley which was identified as being genetically suitable. Using the closet genetic matches for restoration means that plants are suited to local environmental conditions.

ARI Seminar | Saving our iconic Banksias | Annette Muir (ARI) & Laura Simmons (RBGV) 

Banksia canei seed production and fire intervals in Gippsland

• Lucas Bluff, Belinda Rossack, Nevil Amos, Annette Muir (DEECA)
• Project type: research, management
• Location: East Gippsland
• Timing: 2017 – 2018

Summary

A single-year project monitored seed production on Banksia canei in relation to fire intervals. The species has life history characteristics that make it vulnerable to decline with short fire intervals – it is killed by fire and has no soil seed bank. There is uncertainty about whether current planned burning regimes are compatible with its time to reproductive maturity time and hence population persistence.

Data were collected on cone production (seeds) in 2017-2018 for 170 individual B. canei plants in Gippsland Region. A lack of variability in fire history in the study area resulted in one time-since-fire class for the seed analysis. Plants originating from fire in 2003 (14 years old) had a median value of 11 closed cones per plant. Further monitoring of seed production is needed to determine reproductive thresholds.

About a third of recorded B. canei sites were burnt in the widespread bushfires at the start of 2020. Ground checking is needed to verify the extent of adult plant death and levels of seedling recruitment in the burnt areas, and comparison with unburnt sites.

Banksia croajingolensis

Facilitating the conservation of Banksia croajingolensis

• Susan Hoebee (La Trobe University); Abigail Wills (Envite Environment); Max Elliott (Friends of Mallacoota)
• Project type: monitoring, research, citizen science, management
• Location: East Gippsland, Croajingolong National Park
• Timing: November 2021 – 2022

Summary

This project brings together researchers from La Trobe University, ecological restoration practitioners from Envite Environment, and local community members through the Friends of Mallacoota in an initiative to secure the future of East Gippsland’s Banksia croajingolensis.  This endangered species is known only from a single drainage line South of Shipwreck Creek in the Croajingolong National Park, a site that was severely burnt in the 2019/2020 megafires. Very little is known about the biology of B. croajingolensis. There is even a question about its origin, with Flora of Victoria suggesting that it may be a hybrid between other species with which it co-occurs.

We are undertaking surveys to assess the post-bushfire response of B. croajingolensis and combining this with genomic assessment of diversity and structure of the resprouting or emerging plants.  The genomic uniqueness of the species will also be assessed relative to putative parental taxa (B. marginata and B. integrifolia), along with another taxon that is thought to be closely related (B. paludosa).  The genomic outcomes will lead to practical management recommendations including, for example, ex situ collections. In this space, propagation of seed and cuttings by the Friends of Mallacoota is underway to serve as an insurance population in case of future environmental catastrophes.

Banksia cunninghamii 

Banksia cunninghamii demography and fire management

• Contacts: Annette Muir (DEECA), Belinda Rossack (DEECA)
• Fire regimes for Banksias
• Project type: research, adaptive management
• Location/s: East of Melbourne, East Gippsland
• Timing: 2014 – 2022

Summary

Banksia cunninghamii populations are vulnerable to decline if burnt too often, because plants do not resprout after fire, take a long time to produce seed, and have no soil seed banks. The interval between fires needs to be long enough for plants to mature and produce sufficient seed, and for enough seedlings to survive to replace the parent populations.

Investigations into seed production in response to fire were undertaken between 2014 and 2017, to the east of Melbourne and in East Gippsland. Results showed that:

• In populations less than ten years old, only about 40% of plants had any seed cones.
• Maximum canopy seed bank was reached between 15 and 30 years post-fire.

During bushfires in 2019 and 2020, a large proportion of B. cunninghamii populations in East Gippsland and Bunyip State Park were burnt. Post-fire surveys found that:

• Seedling recruitment occurred for around 90% of plants that were ten years or older, but almost no seedlings were recorded for plants that were five years or younger.
• Recruitment was also low at sites in East Gippsland that had experienced high severity fire, because seed cones were destroyed by extreme heat.

Fire history mapping indicates that a third of the distribution of B. cunninghamii in East Gippsland had been burnt less than ten years prior to the bushfires. When considered with the lower probability of seeds and seedlings for plants less than ten years old, there are concerns that this species has declined across a large part of its range. It is vulnerable to local extinctions in the wildfire-affected areas if fires occur again before plants reach maturity.

Guidelines for Hairpin Banksia have been produced in collaboration with burn planners in DEECA and Parks Victoria. The guidelines are based on ARI’s research findings, in the context of hotter, drier weather conditions. These include: checking cone production prior to burning; varying burn intensity; patchiness within burns; and delaying burns in drought conditions.

ARI Seminar | Saving our iconic Banksias | Annette Muir (ARI) & Laura Simmons (RBGV) 

High fire severity and frequency threaten the persistence of a widespread obligate-seeder Banksia in south-eastern Australia, CSIRO Publishing, 2024.

Banksia cunninghamii genetics

Tara Hopley (Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria)

Project type: conservation genetics

Location: Victoria

Timing: 2020 – 2022

Funding: Victorian Government Bushfire Biodiversity Response and Recovery Program

Summary

This research project assessed the genetic diversity and estimated genetic connectivity among the populations of Banksia cunninghamii in Victoria. Leaf samples for genetic analysis were collected from 26 locations across the range of the southern clade of the species. These samples were collected from seedlings at eight locations burnt in the 2019-2020 bushfires, with the remaining unburnt sites composed of adult plants. Two populations on the south coast of NSW were also sampled. DNA samples were sequenced using DArTseq by Diversity Arrays Technology with subsequent analysis undertaken at RBGV.

The key finding was that populations of B. cunninghamii sampled from Victorian are distinct from the populations sampled in NSW.  All populations show levels of inbreeding, indicating restricted gene flow across the range, consistent with limited seed dispersal capacity. Two geographically defined genetic clusters were identified, with a strong split between those populations in East Gippsland (East Gippsland group) and populations East of Melbourne, across Dandenong and Yarra Ranges and Central and South Gippsland (Dandenong Gippsland group). It is important to conserve genetic diversity from each of the two genetic clusters.

ARI Seminar | Saving our iconic Banksias | Annette Muir (ARI) & Laura Simmons (RBGV) 

Banksia cunninghamii seed set and pollination constraints

• Madison Hughes, Susan Hoebee (La Trobe Uni)
• Project type: research
• Location: Dandenong Ranges
• Timing: 2018 – 2019

Summary

In the greater Melbourne region of Victoria, reproductive success in several small populations of Banksia cunninghamii is minimal, even though plants are of reproductive age and successfully develop inflorescences. Possible reproductive constraints limiting seed set within one of these small populations (Dandenong Ranges) were assessed during the 2018 flowering period and contrasted against a larger, more fertile population (Gembrook area). Pollen viability, florivory and floral visitation were compared between the two sites.

Pollen viability was high in both sites, although flowers opened later at the Dandenongs site. Florivorous larvae within Banksia inflorescences were found at both sites and may impact reproductive success. The two sites had different proportions of mammals and birds visiting inflorescences; with a greater number of species recorded from the Gembrook site. It remains unclear if differences in pollinating guilds between the two sites is impacting reproductive success.

Future studies would benefit from assessing pollen loads and pollinator effectiveness, whilst also extending the study to observe more populations of B. cunninghamii. Overall, these results suggest that a variety of factors could be impacting reproductive success in small, reproductively poor populations of B. cunninghamii.

Banksia integrifolia

Water stress, shrub encroachment and declining Banksia integrifolia

• Contacts: Stefan Gouws, John Morgan (La Trobe University)
• Project type: research
• Locations: Wilsons Promontory
• Timing: 2018 – 2019

Summary

Banksia integrifolia (coast banksia) decline at Wilson’s Promontory National Park has been well documented since the 1970’s, yet no single cause has been found. B. integrifolia is a foundational species in the grassy woodlands at Wilson’s Promontory, providing hollows for nesting sites and floral resources for native wildlife. The coastal grassy woodlands have been subjected to large scale shrub encroachment by Leptospermum laevigatum (coast tea-tree).

This study investigated the decline of B. integrifolia trees due to shrub encroachment. We hypothesised that B. integrifolia can access groundwater resources, that the presence of a shrub layer limits water availability for B. integrifolia individuals and that water stress in B. integrifolia increases when surrounded by a dense L. laevigatum understorey. In a glasshouse experiment we found that B. integrifolia have a dimorphic rooting system that enables them to access groundwater resources. Our natural experiments found that encroachment limits water availability for B. integrifolia, especially at depth, and that B. integrifolia individuals surrounded by shrubs had a higher degree of water stress compared to unencroached banksias.

These results indicate that water stress of shrub encroached B. integrifolia could lead to lower productivity, and that shrub encroachment and long-term low intensity drought is contributing to the decline of B. integrifolia across Wilson’s Promontory National Park.  

Banksia marginata

Cockatoos and recruitment limitation of Banksia marginata

• Simon Heyes, John Morgan, Susan Hoebee (La Trobe University)
• Project type: research
• Location: Western Victoria
• Timing: 2016 – 2019

Summary

There is much evidence, both historic and contemporary, that Silver Banksia (Banksia marginata) across the Victorian Volcanic Plains were common and widespread. However, historic land clearing has left many stands in a highly fragmented state. Some of these stands of B. marginata suffer from recruitment and fruit set failure.

We wanted to know if populations of B. marginata are experiencing widespread recruitment failure.  We found that most populations were recruiting, but there was evidence of declining recruitment with population size, suggesting evidence of an Allee effect with smaller populations below 100 individuals failing to recruit. This may, in part, be due to excessive seed predation by Yellow-tailed Black Cockatoos (Zenda funerea).  We found that seed predation rates were high at multiple populations with almost 100% removal of cones at some sites. Timing of seed predation was crucial and we found that cones discarded during early foraging by Yellow-tailed Black Cockatoos had a profound effect on seed germination (lower total germination) and only around 20% of follicles opened from discarded cones.

Managers should focus on minimising threats to seedling survival and augment populations below 100 individuals to improve recruitment and maintain stand persistence in the landscape. While managing seed predation is difficult, we did find that the more isolated populations were more severely affected and future restoration efforts should focus on reconnecting isolated B. marginata populations.

Pre-dispersal seed-predation affects fruit crop and seed fitness in a highly fragmented savanna tree CSIRO Publishing 2023.

Genetics, climatic niche and Banksia marginata

• Adam Miller (Deakin University)
• Project type: research, adaptive management
• Location: South-eastern Australia
• Timing: 2015 – 2019

Summary

Habitat fragmentation imperils the persistence of many functionally important species, with climate change a new threat to local persistence due to climate niche mismatching. Predicting the evolutionary trajectory of species essential to ecosystem function under future climates is challenging but necessary for prioritizing conservation investments.

In a publication that appeared in the journal Evolutionary Applications, our team used a combination of population genetics and niche suitability models to assess the trajectory of Banksia marginata from south-eastern Australia. We demonstrate significant genetic structuring among, and high level of relatedness within, fragmented remnant populations, highlighting imminent risks of inbreeding. Population simulations, controlling for effective population size, suggest that many remnant populations will suffer rapid declines in genetic diversity due to drift in the absence of intervention. Simulations were used to demonstrate how inbreeding and drift processes might be suppressed by assisted migration and population mixing approaches that enhance the size and connectivity of remnant populations. These analyses were complemented by niche suitability models that predicted substantial reductions of suitable habitat by 2080; ~30% of the current distribution of the species climate niche overlaps with the projected distribution of the species climate niche in the geographic region by the 2080s.

Our study highlights the importance of conserving remnant populations and establishing new populations in areas likely to support B. marginata in the future, and adopting seed sourcing strategies that can help populations overcome the risks of inbreeding and maladaptation. We also argue that ecological replacement of B. marginata using climatically suited plant species might be needed in the future to maintain ecosystem processes where B. marginata cannot persist. We recommend the need for progressive revegetation policies and practices to prevent further deterioration of species such as B. marginata and the ecosystems they support.

Genetic data and climate niche suitability models highlight the vulnerability of a functionally important plant species from south-eastern Australia Online Library Wiley 2020.

Pollination vectors of tree-form Banksia marginata

Graham Jury (La Trobe University), Susan Hoebee (La Trobe Uni)

Project type: research

Location: western Victoria

Timing: 2021

Summary

Tree-form Banksia marginata (Silver Banksia) in western Victoria exhibits highly localised gene pools indicating severe fragmentation and limited gene flow among remnants, potentially due to pollination failure. Research was undertaken in 2021 with two central aims.  The first broader aim was to explore whether floral visitation was altered by fragmentation and involved cataloguing the faunal community that visits B. marginata inflorescences in central/western Victoria.  The second aim was to explore the relative contributions of vertebrate and invertebrate pollinators to the species’ breeding system, using two isolated, intact remnants where cone and follicle production was quantified on inflorescences following a series of pollination treatments.

Floral visitors to B. marginata were composed of birds (mostly honeyeaters, Meliphagidae), mammals (marsupials and rodents) and a suite of invertebrates.  Diurnal visitation was dominated by the New Holland Honeyeater (Phylidonyris novaehollandiae) and the invasive European Honeybee (Apis mellifera).  Fragmented sites had increased daytime visitation by disturbance-tolerant species, including Meat Ants (Iridomyrmex purpureus) and Noisy Miners (Manorina melanocephala).  However, nocturnal visitation varied considerably under fragmentation, with intact sites dominated by native mammals, particularly Inland Sugar Glider (Petaurus notatus) and fragmented sites dominated by invasive Black Rats (Rattus rattus).  

In pollination studies where visitation was excluded, inflorescences produced follicles, thus indicating that tree-form B. marginata can self-pollinate.  Treated inflorescences also readily produced follicles via hand-pollinated selfing.  However, visitor access increased cone and follicle production, with the highest numbers recorded from open inflorescences.

While visitation from honeyeaters and gliders could be predicted based upon studies from earlier Banksia research, this study confirmed the potential for B. marginata to be pollinated by Rattus rattus and the Brush-tailed Phascogale (Phascogale tapoatafa tapoatafa) through detection of pollen within the scats and facial fur of these species.  Furthermore, House Mice (Mus musculus) inhabiting a linear site carried high pollen loads, implying they too may have a role in provision of pollination service.  The potential for pollination via vectors including invasive and disturbance-tolerant native species, suggests that fragmented stands may be more resilient to pollination failure than previously understood.  

Seed orchards for restoration and genetic diversity

• Contact: Bill Weatherly (Friends of Forgotten Woodlands)
• Project type: adaptive management
• Location: Western Victoria
• Timing: 2014 – 2020

Aims

Locating and propagating from all Victorian Volcanic Plains (VVP) remnants to build a network of seed orchards and seed production areas (SPAs) and other plantings. Rebuilding genetic diversity and providing reliable seed sources. Establishing SPAs with climate match genetics incorporated. Hopefully rebuilding a little of a keystone ecological component.

Activities

Friends of the Forgotten Woodlands (FoFW) is a volunteer group, and includes leading researchers in ecology and genetics, and their advice and contribution informs all our activities. FoFW also enables discussion and facilitation of research work within the group. The immediate focus was location of all remnants and propagation, as considerable decline and loss was occurring, and in parallel building and adding to our knowledge base. FoFW has been supported with several grants, including a 3-year Biodiversity and Community Action Grant, which have greatly increased our effectiveness and scope.

Outcomes

Adam Miller (Deakin University) undertook investigation of levels of genetic diversity of the fragmented remnant populations, and also advised on design of SPAs incorporating climate adaptation. Since then we have encouraged and supported research investigating population structure and status (Simon Heyes, La Trobe University), genetic movement within populations (Adam Miller), and pollination (Graham Jury, La Trobe University).

Since 2014 we have planted orchards of VVP Banksia marginata, and Sheoak and Bursaria. This has been on public and private land at 16 locations – a total of 5880 plants growing, GPS recorded with provenance. We have also distributed 7000 trees to 28 landholders, several locations with GPS records. 

Our group has a wide range and depth of experience, and we work to best practice with best advice. As well as the knowledge and experience that members of FoFW brought to the group, we have added to this collective experience through what we have learned in building the project and implementing it. We have successfully set up large SPAs and learned to manage the logistics. We will always be happy to share information with others working to build their projects.

Seed orchards and climate change

• Cathy Olive (Euroa Arboretum)
• Project type: adaptive management
• Location: North-eastern Victoria
• Timing: 2004 – 2019

Summary

The goal of the project has been to establish large, self-sustaining populations of Banksia marginata, with a broader genetic base, that could be used as seed orchards in the future.

Euroa Arboretum Seed Production Area

The SPA was set up in 2004. Around 350 plants were planted over a number of years, from 9 provenance sources in the Strathbogies and Tooborac areas. In 2015, 80 trees remained, with 6 provenances represented. 

The work of Dr Linda Broadhurst (CSIRO) has shown that the Euroa Arboretum Banksias are genetically more robust than the wild populations, but still show inbreeding depression. Since 2015, plants from Chiltern, Ararat, and Pastoria have been added to enhance genetic robustness.  We are also adding drier climate adapted plants.

A large irrigation system was installed in 2017 to irrigate the site from early summer until April. There have been large losses of Banksia after extreme heat waves over 40 degrees, with at least 40 mature trees dying per year for the past 2 years. This has also happened at the Euroa Arboretum Silver Banksia Seed Production Area.

Goulburn Broken CMA Silver Banksia project

This project was started in 2012, with funding from the Victorian Biodiversity Fund for 6 years. The purpose is to build a landscape of Silver Banksia woodlands.

Initially there was a shortage of seed to meet demand. Banksia plants were grown and given to landholders to establish seed production sites. Sites are ideally large scale, with several hundred plants per site. Landholders need to commit to summer watering in the first year. There is an average success rate of 50 –60%.

Over 8 years, 18,000 Silver Banksias have been planted across the GBCMA areas, but survival rates are yet to be measured.

Banksia ornata

Demographic shift in fire-killed serotinous Banksia ornata

• Neal Enright, Joe Fontaine (Murdoch University)
• Project type: research
• Location: Grampians & Little Desert National Parks
• Timing: 1990’s, 2017

Summary

The aims of this work were to investigate:

• Banksia ornata population viability in relation to fire regime, and critical minimum fire interval (and optimum) for population persistence.
• Evidence for climate change impact on seed production and accumulation by plant age, by comparing 2017 data with 1990’s data.

Field data collection was undertaken across the available range of ‘time since fire’ (tsf) sites in the Grampians and Little Desert. Plant size (height, canopy width) and total cone crop per plant were measured for a minimum of 60 plants per fire age area. Follicle counts were made on burned cones to assess if there were changes in follicles per cone over time.

Monthly rainfall, temperature and SPEI (Standardised Precipitation – Evaporation Index) data was obtained for the nearest climate stations. Cumulative rainfall deviation from mean/median was compared for populations of similar tsf age in 2017 vs 1990’s.

There was a marked decrease in total cones per B. ornata plant at both Grampians and Little Desert tsf chronosequence sites in 2017-18 as compared to 1990’s. Declines in cone store per plant correlate with decreased rainfall and increased SPEI.

Populations will be more vulnerable to decline and loss under short interval fire, and in fact will need longer inter-fire intervals to accumulate seed stores sufficient to best guarantee future persistence. Even with longer time to accumulate a sufficient seed bank, the increasingly dry climate will reduce the number of years when post-fire conditions for recruitment are favourable.

Dieback of Banksia ornata in Little and Big Deserts

• Rachel McIntosh (La Trobe University), Rachel McIntosh (gmail)
• Project type: research
• Location: Little and Big Deserts
• Timing: 2019 – 2020

Summary

As part of a plant community fire study in Little and Big Deserts in western Victoria, we collected demographic data (height, life-stage, presence of flowers and fruits) for key fire response species including Banksia ornata. Data has not been analysed as yet. During our field season in 2019 we observed a high number of senescing and dead B. ornata. Senescence appeared to begin at a single stem and then radiated as it progressed. We visited 96 sites in the Little and Big Deserts and observed dead or senescing B. ornata at almost every site. Further investigation is needed into the extent and causes of this dieback.

Banksia saxicola

Ageing Banksia saxicola at Wilsons Promontory

Nina Kerr (Ecology Australia); Rebecca Miller (Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria)

Project type: research

Location: Wilsons Promontory

Timing: 2023-current

Summary

Banksia saxicola plants are slow to reach maturity (14 - 20 years) and are killed by fire. The Wilsons Promontory population have a high degree of serotiny, and the population along the Sealers Cove track likely germinated from the canopy-stored seedbank after the 1951 fires (74 years ago). A survey in 1993 found the age of this population was between 19 and >30 years old, with no recent recruits, and the authors raised concern that the population was failing to recruit and would need fire to avoid population extinction (Middleton et al. 1996).

A re-survey of the Sealers Cove track population by Ecology Australia in 2023-2024 measured the reproductive output (cone counts) and size (height and stem diameter) of the plants. Plants were mapped and a sub-set were permanently tagged to allow monitoring of individual trees. The Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria also collected seed for the Victorian Conservation Seedbank and are conducting germination trails. While the population was dominated by mature plants (10-15 m tall), there was a wide range of trunk diameters, including some recent recruits. This suggests occasional inter-fire recruitment is occurring and there is uncertainty if or when intervention with planned burning is necessary to avoid population extinction. We aim to produce a publicly available report detailing the results of this resurvey to guide further research and management.

Banksia serrata

Drought and dieback in Banksia serrata in Gippsland

• John Morgan, Aleyna Firat (La Trobe University)
• Project type: research
• Location: East Gippsland
• Timing: 2019

Summary

As temperatures and drought become more extreme, ecological thresholds for survival may be increasingly exceeded. In this study, we observed extensive dieback of Banksia serrata (Saw Banksia)  in central and east Gippsland. This likely occurred in 2017/8 following a period of record high temperatures and very low rainfall.  At one large stand, we found substantial mortality (biased towards larger sized plants) and extensive dieback (across all sizes of plants). We hypothesise that water-stress thresholds were exceeded, contributing to a landscape-scale response. If extreme climate trends continue, further declines of B. serrata populations might be envisaged

Other habitat projects

Banksias Beyond Boundaries

• Basalt to Bay Landcare Network Inc. 
• Long term Landcare project focusing on Silver Banksia Banksia marginata and Coast Banksia Banksia integrifolia
• Locations: St Helens, Orford, The Green Line Project (Warrong to Minhamite Victrack). Also, a VicRoads seed orchard of Banksias at Woolsthorpe. Remnant roadside trees and farms in the Moyne Shire.
• Project commenced in 2018 – 2024.

This project is aimed at protecting wild seedlings from browsing in sites where macropod density is high. Protecting wild old growth trees in project sites with enhanced pest control on Black Rat seed predation. Collecting & growing local provenance seed from Basalt to Bay Landcare Network project sites. Champion the cause and awareness of Silver Banksias on social media. Highlighting remnant roadside trees to Council & VicRoads to promote their inclusion in roadside conservation plans. Featuring Silver & Coast Banksia in advice given to landholders for what to plant in farm shelterbelts.

Journal articles

Ayre, D.J., O'Brien, E., Ottewell, K. and Whelan, R.J. (2010). The accumulation of genetic diversity within a canopy-stored seed bank. Molecular Ecology, 19, 2640-2650.

Bennett, L.T. and Attiwill, P.M. (1997). The Nutritional Status of Healthy and Declining Stands of Banksia integrifolia on the Yanakie Isthmus, Victoria. Australian Journal of Botany 45, 15–30.

Bradstock, R.A. and Bedward, M. (1992). Simulation of the effect of season of fire on post-fire seedling emergence of two Banksia species based on long-term rainfall records. Australian Journal of Botany 40, 75-88.

Bradstock, R.A. (1990). Demography of woody plants in relation to fire: Banksia serrata and Isopogon anemonifolius. Austral Ecology 15, 117–32.

Carthew, S.M. (1994). Foraging behaviour of marsupial pollinators in a population of Banksia spinulosa. OIKOS 69, 133-139.

Collins, L., McCarthy, G., Mellor, A., Newell, G. and Smith, L. (2020) Training data requirements for fire severity mapping using Landsat imagery and random forest. Remote Sensing of Environment 245.

 Enright, N.J., Fontaine, J.B., Bowman, D.M.J.S., Bradstock, R.A. and Williams, R.J. (2015). Interval squeeze: altered fire regimes and demographic responses interact to threaten woody species persistence as climate changes. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 13, 265-272.

 Evans, K.M., Ladiges, P.Y., Newbigin, E. and Ades, P.K. (2001). Genetic variation in Banksia saxicola (Proteaceae), a rare      Australian plant with a markedly disjunct distribution. Plant Systematics and Evolution 227, 105-115.

FFG Threatened List (2025) Flora and Fauna Guarantee Threatened List March 2025, Department of Energy, Environment and Climate Action (DEECA).

Gill, A.M. and McMahon, A. (1986). A Post-fire Chronosequence of Cone, Follicle and Seed Production in Banksia ornata. Australian Journal of Botany 34, 425-433.

Goldingay, R.L. & Carthew, S.M. (1998) Breeding and mating systems of Australian Proteaceae. Australian Journal of Botany 46, 421-437.

Heyes, S., Sinclair, S., Hoebee, S. and Morgan, J. (2020) How widespread are recruitment bottlenecks in fragmented populations of the savanna tree Banksia marginata (Proteaceae)? Plant Ecology 221, 545-557.

Heyes, S.D., Morgan, J.W., Sinclair, S.J., Walker, Z.C. and Hoebee, S.E. (2023). Pre-dispersal seed-predation affects fruit crop and seed fitness in a highly fragmented savanna tree. Australian Journal of Botany, 71, 434–442.

Hopley, T. and Simmons, L. (2023). Conservation genetics of Banksia spinulosa var. cunninghamii. Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria.

Hughes, M. J. (2019). Determining reproductive constraints in a small population of Banksia spinulosa var. cunninghamii (Proteaceae) in the Dandenong Ranges, Victoria (Unpublished honour's thesis). La Trobe University, Victoria, Australia.

Jeanes, J.A. (1996). Proteaceae. In: Walsh, N.G.; Entwisle, T.J. (eds), Flora of Victoria Vol. 3, Dicotyledons Winteraceae to Myrtaceae. Inkata Press, Melbourne.

Krauss, S.L., Phillips, R.D., Karron, J.D., Johnson, S.D., Roberts, D.G. and Hopper, S.D. (2017) Novel consequences of bird pollination for plant mating. Trends in Plant Science 22: 5 

Lamont, B.B., Enright, N.J., Witkowski, E.T.F. and Groeneveld, J. (2007). Conservation biology of Banksias: Insights from natural history to simulation modelling. Australian Journal of Botany 55, 280-292.

Miller A.D., Nitschke C., Weeks A.R., Weatherly W.L., Heyes S.D., Sinclair S.J., Holland O.J., Stevenson A., Broadhurst L.M., Hoebee S.E., Sherman C.D.H., Morgan J.W. (2020) Genetic data and climate niche suitability models highlight the vulnerability of a functionally important plant species from south-eastern Australia. Evolutionary Applications 13, 2014-2020. 

Molyneux, W.M. and Forrester, S.G. (2007). Banksia croajingolensis (Proteaceae), a new species from East Gippsland, Victoria. Telopea 11, 419–426.

Muir, A., Vesk, P. and Hepworth, G. (2014) Reproductive trajectories over decadal time-spans after fire for eight obligate-seeder shrub species in south-eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Botany 62, 369–378

Muir, A., Heyes, S., Morgan, J., Hoebee, S., Enright, N., Whelan, R., Geschke, A., Bennett, A., Walsh, S., Weatherly, W. and Milne, R. (2021). Conservation challenges for Victorian Banksias: Workshop May 2020. Ecological Management & Restoration 23, 199–202.

Muir A., Amos N., Moloney P. (2024). High fire severity and frequency threaten the persistence of a widespread obligate-seeder Banksia in south-eastern Australia. Australian Journal of Botany 72, BT24048

McCarthy, M.A., Possingham, H.P. and Gill, A.M. (2001). Using stochastic dynamic programming to determine optimal fire management for Banksia ornata. Journal of Applied Ecology 38,585–592.

Price, J.N. and Morgan, J.W (2003). Mechanisms controlling establishment of the non-bradysporous Banksia integrifolia (Coast Banksia) in an unburnt coastal woodland. Austral Ecology 28, 82-92.

Salkin, A. and Hallam, N.D. (1978). The Topodemes of Banksia canei J. H. Willis (Proteaceae). Australian Journal of Botany 26, 707-721.

Simmons, L. (2023). Conservation genetics of Banksia canei. Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria.

Stimpson, M.L., Weston, P.H., Whalley, R.D.B. and Bruhl, J.J. (2016). A morphometric analysis of the Banksia spinulosa complex (Proteaceae) and its complex taxonomic implications. Australian Systematic Botany 29, 55-86

Tynan, K.M., Scott, E.S. and Sedgley, M. (1998). Evaluation of Banksia species for response to Phytophthora infection. Plant Pathology 47, 446–455.

Vaughton, G. (1990a). Predation by insects limits seed production in Banksia spinulosa var. neoanglica. Australian Journal of Botany 38, 335-340.

Vaughton, G. (1990b). Seasonal variation in honeyeater foraging behaviour, inflorescence abundance and infructescence set in Banksia spinulosa (Proteaceae). Australian Journal of Ecology 15, 109-116.

Vaughton, G. and Ramsey, M. (2006). Selfed Seed Set and Inbreeding Depression in Obligate Seeding Populations of Banksia marginata. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 127.

Whelan, R.J. and Ayre, D.J. (2020). Long inter‐fire intervals do not guarantee a large seed bank in a serotinous shrub (Banksia spinulosa Sm.). Journal of Ecology 108, 1690-1702.

Whelan, R.J., Jong, N.H., Burg, S. (1998). Variation in bradyspory and seedling recruitment without fire among populations of Banksia serrata (Proteaceae). Austral Ecology 23, 121–28.

Whitehead, M.R., Lanfear, R, Mitchell, R.J. and Karron, J.D. (2018) Plant mating systems often vary widely among populations. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 6:38. 

Wilson, T.C., Rossetto, M., Bain, D., Yap, J.S., Wilson, P.D., Stimpson, M.L., Weston, P.H., Croft, L. (2022). A turn in species conservation for hairpin banksias: demonstration of oversplitting leads to better management of diversity. American Journal of Botany 109, 1652–1671.

Are you working on any aspect of Banksia ecology or management, and would like to share information? 

• contact SWIFFT so we can compile a list of who is undertaking what projects on this page.
• email: Annette Muir - DEECA